WhatsApp usOur comprehensive fine art glossary brings together the full spectrum of traditional and contemporary artistic techniques. Designed as both a practical reference for conservators, artists, collectors and an educational resource for anyone interested in the technical history of art, this edition will follow the evolution of printmaking from early relief methods to modern digital processes.
This series also covers:
By understanding how prints are made, we gain clearer insight into an artist’s intentions, the nuances of printed surfaces and the considerations that guide conservation, preservation and display.
Print Making Materials & Techniques
To make this glossary easy to navigate, we have organised it into sections that reflect the major families of printmaking.
Intaglio Processes
Intaglio printmaking encompasses techniques where the ink sits below the surface of a metal plate. The ink is held within lines, textures or recesses.
Above: detail from a print by Goya, combining an etching with burnished aquatint to achieve a tonal background
Aquatint
Aquatint is an intaglio technique that creates areas of tone instead of lines. A fine layer of resin is applied to a metal plate and etched with acid, which leaves a textured surface that holds ink. This produces soft washes, gradients and shadowed effects similar to watercolour. Developed in the 18th century, the aquatint became popular for its ability to add depth and atmosphere. Artists such as Francisco Goya and Mary Cassatt used it to enrich their prints with subtle tonal variations.
Drypoint
Drypoint has been used by artists from the 15th century onwards. To create a drypoint print, the artist scratches directly into a plate using a sharp needle. The technique raises a delicate amount of metal along each line, which holds extra ink and prints as a soft, velvety mark. Because the raised line wears down under pressure, the lines of a drypoint often appear slightly fuzzy.
Above: detail from a drypoint by Wilhelm Lehmbruck, 1914
Etching
The creation of an etching requires a metal plate coated with a protective wax layer, the artist then scratches through the wax to expose the metal. When the plate is placed into an acid, the drawn lines are eaten into the surface. These grooves hold ink and print as clear lines.
Popular from the 16th century, etching became a favourite technique because it appears like a true drawing. Rembrandt is well known for his production of etchings, alongside Wenceslaus Hollar and Castiglione.
Sugar-Lift Etching
Sugar-lift etching is a technique that allows artists to create bold, brush-like marks in their print. A mixture of sugar and ink is painted directly onto the plate; once dry, it is covered with hard ground and then dissolved in warm water. This “lifts” the ground wherever the sugar mixture was applied, exposing those areas to be bitten by acid and resulting in fluid, painterly shapes. Figures like Joan Miró and Pablo Picasso used the sugar-lift etching method.
Above: detail of an engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1519
Engraving
Engraving is an intaglio technique in which the artist uses a burin (a sharp, V-shaped tool) to cut clean, precise lines directly into a metal plate. Because no metal is raised (as in drypoint) the incised grooves hold ink very sharply, producing prints with crisp edges, fine detail and strong contrast.
In the 15th century, engraving became a key method for printmaking and allowed artists to create multiple copies of their work prior to the invention of modern methods.
Mezzotint
Mezzotint creates deep tones by roughening the entire metal plate with a serrated tool called a rocker. The surface starts completely textured and capable of printing solid black. Lighter areas are produced by smoothing the plate, allowing the artist to work from dark to light.
From the 17th century, mezzotint printing became popular for reproducing paintings in a print form, allowing traditional artists to sell copies of their work – especially portraits of royalty and celebrated figures in society.
Above: detail of a mezzotint by John Dixon, 1774
Carborundum Printmaking
Carborundum printmaking uses a gritty abrasive called carborundum powder. This is glued or mixed with an acrylic medium and applied to a plate. The textured surface holds large amounts of ink, producing deep, rich tones and broad areas of colour. Unlike traditional intaglio, the depth of tone comes from the grit rather than etched lines, giving prints a bold, tactile quality. Henri Goetz is often credited with refining the method and Louise Nevelson explored its dramatic, sculptural possibilities.
Viscosity Printing
Viscosity printing is an intaglio technique that uses inks of different thicknesses (viscosities) so they repel or attract each other on a single plate. By inking the plate with rollers of varying hardness, multiple colours can be applied at once. This allows for complex, layered prints to be made from a single impression. Viscosity printing was pioneered by Stanley William Hayter, as well as Joan Miró and Mauricio Lasansky.
Above: detail from a photogravure by Armand-Hippolyte-Louis Fizeau, 1841
Photogravure
The photogravure printing process translates a photographic image onto a metal plate using a light sensitive gelatin tissue. After exposure to a film positive, the gelatin hardens in proportion to the image’s tones and is then transferred to a copper plate. When the plate is etched, it creates a finely textured surface that holds ink and prints with smooth, continuous tonal gradations.
Invented in the 19th century, photogravure offered one of the earliest ways to reproduce photographs, it was adopted by photographic pioneers like Alfred Stieglitz and Peter Henry Emerson.
Relief Printing
Relief printing is one of the oldest printmaking methods, created by carving away areas of a block so that only the raised surface receives ink.
Above: detail from a woodcut by Hokusai, 1839
Woodcut
Woodcut is a printing technique in which the artist carves into the surface of a wooden block, removing the areas that should remain white. The raised surface is then inked and pressed onto paper, producing bold shapes and strong lines. Among the oldest printing methods, woodcut has been used in art since ancient China and became central to European print culture in the 15th century. Albrecht Dürer practiced the technique with fine details, while Japanese masters like Hokusai and Hiroshige elevated colour woodcut in the ukiyo-e tradition.
Linocut
Linocut is a relief technique where the artist carves into a sheet of linoleum, removing the areas that will remain unprinted. The remaining raised surface is inked and pressed onto paper, creating clean, graphic shapes. Because linoleum has no grain, it allows for smooth, flowing cuts and makes the carving process easier and more flexible than wood. From the early 20th century, linocut was popular with modern artists for its bold, expressive qualities and accessibility. Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse both used this technique to experiment with simplified forms and colour combinations.
Above: detail of a linocut by Janus de Winter (1892-1951)
Collagraph
Collagraph is a versatile printmaking technique in which a plate is built up using textured materials such as fabric, card, sandpaper or string. These materials are glued onto a base plate to create raised and recessed areas, which can then be inked and printed either as a relief (inking the raised surfaces) or as intaglio (inking the recessed textures). The result is a richly tactile print with varied tones and surfaces. Emerging in the mid 20th century, the collagraph became a popular experimental method due to its low cost and creative flexibility. Artists such as Glen Alps refined the technique as a modern medium.
Wood Engraving
Wood engraving is a relief technique carved into the end grain of a hard, dense wood such as boxwood. Using fine tools called burins, the artist incises detailed lines into the surface; the remaining raised areas are inked and printed. Because end-grain wood is extremely strong and smooth, it allows for exceptionally fine details and precise line work. Wood engraving became essential for book illustration throughout the 19th century. Artists such as Eric Gill and Clare Leighton later revived the technique for expressive, contemporary work.
Above: detail from an book illustration by August Gaber after Ludwig Adrian Richter, 1857
Reduction Printing
Reduction printing is a relief technique in which a single block is carved and printed multiple times, with more material removed before each new colour layer is applied. The lightest colour is printed first, then the block is cut further and printed again, building the image step by step. Because the block is gradually destroyed in the process, the edition cannot be reprinted, making each series inherently limited.
Rubber Cut / Soft-Cut
Rubber cut or soft-cut printing uses flexible synthetic blocks that are much softer than traditional wood or linoleum. The material is easy to carve with simple tools, allowing smooth, flowing lines and quick removal of large areas. Once carved, the raised surface is inked and printed like any other relief block, producing clean, bold impressions.
Planographic Processes
Planographic prints refer to methods where the image is created on a completely flat surface, with no raised or recessed areas. Instead, these techniques rely on the chemical or physical separation of ink-receiving and ink-repelling areas.
Above: detail from a colour lithograph by Armand Rassenfosse, 1897
Lithograph
Lithography works on the principle that grease and water repel each other. The artist draws on a flat stone or metal plate with a greasy crayon or ink; when the surface is moistened, only the non-greasy areas absorb water. During printing, oily ink sticks to the drawn areas and is repelled by the dampened surface, producing smooth, expressive marks that closely resemble direct drawing.
Invented in the late 18th century by Alois Senefelder, lithographs quickly became popular for both artistic prints and commercial posters. Lithographic prints were created by artists such as Honoré Daumier and later by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, whose vibrant posters helped define the visual style of late 19th century Paris.
Above: detail of a lithograph showing the interior of the Lemercier Lithographic Printing House, 19th century
Waterless Lithography
Waterless lithography is a modern planographic technique that replaces the traditional water / grease balance with a silicone coated plate. The silicone repels ink, while the image areas, exposed through a photopolymer process, accept it. This eliminates the need for constant dampening, making the process more predictable and capable of producing sharp lines, smooth gradients and vibrant colours.
Collotype
The collotype print uses a photomechanical process that involves a light-sensitive gelatin coating on a glass or metal plate. After exposure to a photographic image, the gelatin hardens unevenly according to the light it receives, creating a finely textured surface that holds ink in varying degrees. When printed, this produces remarkably smooth tonal transitions ideal for detailed photographic reproduction.
Above: detail from a collotype print, 1871
Stencil Techniques
These techniques involve creating images by blocking out selected areas so that ink, paint or pigment can pass through only where the design is intended to appear.
Screenprint / Silkscreen / Serigraph
In screen printing, the ink is pushed through a fine mesh screen onto a surface, with certain areas blocked out to create the image. Each colour is printed using a separate stencil, allowing for bold shapes, layered colours and precise graphic effects. Developed in the early 20th century from commercial stencil printing, screen prints became a major artistic medium for modern artists. Andy Warhol and Robert Rauschenberg are best known for their use of screenprints, it was a defining style of the Pop Art movement.
Above: detail of the polchoir technique on the cover of a fashion magazine, 1925
Pochoir
Pochoir is a hand-coloured stencil technique in which artists apply pigment through carefully cut stencils using brushes or sponges. This method allows for vivid, opaque colour and precise shapes. Because each colour is applied by hand, pochoir prints have a distinctive, handcrafted quality with sharp edges and luxurious surface texture.
Widely used in the early 20th century, pochoir became associated with the Art Deco movement, where its vibrant colours and elegant designs suited fashion plates, interior design publications and limited-edition books. Artists and illustrators such as Georges Lepape and Édouard Halouze helped popularise the style.
Mimeograph / Stencil Duplicator
Mimeograph printing uses a thin wax-coated stencil that is cut or typed into, creating openings where ink can pass through. The stencil is wrapped around a drum filled with ink and as the drum rotates, ink is pushed through the cut areas onto paper. This simple, mechanical process produces clear, bold prints and allows for fast duplication without the need for plates or presses.
The mimeograph became a staple for schools, offices and community groups before photocopiers existed. Artists later embraced its rough, textured aesthetic, most notably Ray Johnson, whose mail art often incorporated mimeograph prints.
Above: a woman using a mimeograph, 1942
Digital & Modern Printing
This section encompasses modern print techniques that use unique and advanced technology.
Giclée
The giclée printing process uses a high-resolution inkjet printer, callibrated to produce detailed, colour-rich images on paper or canvas. The process uses fine droplets of ink, allowing for smooth gradients, accurate colour matching and archival longevity when printed on quality materials.
Digital C-Type (Lambda / LightJet)
Digital C-type prints are created by exposing light-sensitive photographic paper using digital lasers or LEDs, rather than a traditional enlarger. Devices such as Lambda and LightJet printers project red, green and blue laser light onto the paper, forming a continuous-tone image with exceptional sharpness and colour accuracy. After exposure, the paper is processed using standard photographic chemicals, resulting in a true photographic print with a smooth, glossy or matte finish.
Risograph
Risograph printing uses a digital duplicator to push soy-based ink through a master stencil wrapped around a fast-rotating drum. Each colour requires its own drum and as the paper passes through the machine, bright, semi-transparent spot colours are layered to create distinctive overlaps and textures. The result is a print with bold colour, visible grain and slight registration shifts that contribute to its characteristic handmade look.
Introduced in the 1980s by the Riso Kagaku Corporation, the Risograph became popular for posters and small publications due to its low cost. Contemporary artists and designers such as Eloise Dorr and Clay Hickson have embraced it in their work.
UV Flatbed Printing
The digital process of UV flatbed printing requires ink to be applied directly onto rigid surfaces (such as wood, metal, acrylic or glass) and instantly cured with ultraviolet light. The UV curing hardens the ink as soon as it’s applied, producing crisp detail, vibrant colours and a durable, scratch-resistant finish. Because the printhead moves over the surface rather than feeding material through a roller, it can print on objects of varying thicknesses, textures and shapes.
Photography
Photographic prints are images created by exposing light-sensitive materials to light and developing them through chemical or digital processes.
Above: detail of a daguerreotype portrait, 1840-60
Daguerreotype
A daguerreotype is made by polishing a silver-coated copper plate to a mirror finish, sensitising it with iodine vapour to form light-sensitive silver iodide, then exposing it in a camera and developing the latent image with heated mercury vapour. The plate is fixed, washed and often hand-tinted before being sealed behind glass.
Introduced by Louis Daguerre in 1839, it became the first widely adopted photographic process. For preservation, daguerreotypes must be kept sealed, handled minimally and stored in stable, low-humidity conditions to prevent deterioration.
Ambrotype
Ambrotypes are created by coating a glass plate with collodion, sensitising it in a silver nitrate bath and exposing it while still wet. The resulting negative image appears as a positive when placed against a dark backing. Introduced in the 1850s as a cheaper, faster alternative to the daguerreotype, the ambrotype became popular for portraiture in Europe and America.
Above: detail from an ambrotype portrait, 1855-70
Tintype / Ferrotype
The tintype is made by coating a thin iron sheet with a dark lacquer, then applying a collodion emulsion that is sensitised and exposed while still wet. The photographic image forms as a direct positive because the dark backing enhances the underexposed negative.
Albumen Print
An albumen print is made by coating paper with a mixture of egg white (albumen) and salt, then sensitising it with a silver nitrate solution to form light-sensitive silver salts. Negatives are contact-printed onto the prepared paper using sunlight or UV light, producing images with a smooth, glossy surface and fine detail. After exposure, the print is toned, often with gold, to improve stability and then fixed and washed. Albumen prints benefit from cool, stable conditions, low light levels during display and careful handling to prevent surface abrasion.
Above: detail from an albumen print, 1863
Cyanotype
Cyanotype prints are created by coating a material with ferric ammonium citrate and potassium ferricyanide, then placing objects or a negative in direct contact with the surface and exposing it to sunlight or UV light. The exposed areas form Prussian blue, while the covered areas remain pale, producing the process’s distinctive blue-and-white image. Invented by Sir John Herschel in 1842, cyanotype became well known through the botanical photograms of Anna Atkins, the first person to publish a book illustrated with photographs.
Salt Print
Salt printing involves soaking paper in a salt solution, allowing it to dry and then brushing it with silver nitrate. This forms light-sensitive silver chloride within the paper fibres. A negative is placed in direct contact with the surface and exposed to sunlight or UV light, producing a soft, matte image as the silver darkens. After exposure, the print is fixed and washed. Invented by William Henry Fox Talbot in the 1830s, the salt print marked a major shift toward paper based photographic prints.
Above: detail from a salt print by David Octavius Hill, 1846
Platinum / Palladium Print
Platinum prints are made by brushing a light-sensitive solution of metal salts onto high-quality paper, then placing a negative in direct contact with the surface and exposing it to UV light. During development, the platinum or palladium metals form directly within the paper fibres, creating images with a matte finish. Because no gelatin layer is involved, the prints have a distinctive, velvety appearance.
Gelatin Silver Print
Gelatin silver prints are made by coating paper with a gelatin layer containing light-sensitive silver halides. When exposed through a negative and developed in chemicals, the silver forms a detailed black-and-white image. The print is then fixed and washed to create a stable photograph. This was a dominant photographic process throughout the 20th century and used by photographers like Ansel Adams and Henri Cartier-Bresson.
Above: detail from a silver gelatin print by Alfred Stieglitz, 1889, printed 1920-39
Other Techniques
Experimental, hybrid or supportive printmaking methods that fall outside traditional categories.
Monotype
Monotype prints are created by painting or rolling ink onto a smooth, non-absorbent surface, such as glass, metal or acrylic. This is transferred onto paper using a press or hand pressure. Because most of the ink lifts off in the first impression, the result is a one-of-a-kind print, sometimes followed by a lighter “ghost” print taken from the remaining residue. Developed in the 17th century and explored by artists such as Castiglione, monotype later gained popularity with Edgar Degas, who used it for its atmospheric textures and painterly qualities.
Gel Plate Printing (Gelli Prints)
Gel plate printing uses a soft, flexible plate (made from gelatin or synthetic gel) onto which paint or ink is rolled and manipulated before being transferred to paper by hand. Objects, stencils, leaves or textured materials can be pressed into the surface to create layered patterns and impressions.
Frottage
Frottage is made by placing paper over a textured surface, such as wood grain, leaves or fabric. The paper is rubbed over with pencil, charcoal or crayon to capture the raised patterns beneath. Max Ernst adopted the frottage technique in the 1920s and it became associated with Surrealism for its ability to reveal unexpected forms.
Chine-Collé
Chine-collé involves placing a thin, delicate paper onto a heavier backing sheet and bonding them together during the printing process. When run through the printing press, the pressure simultaneously prints the image and adheres the thin sheet to the support.
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