WhatsApp usOur definitive glossary of art materials brings together an extensive range of traditional and contemporary techniques used across the visual arts. Designed as both a practical reference for conservators, artists, collectors and an educational resource for those interested in material history, this glossary traces how drawing media have evolved, from metalpoint and natural chalks to graphite, coloured pencil, ink and modern practices.
Join our team of experts as they explain the composition and use of each material with attention to the qualities that influence an artwork’s appearance. By understanding the physical nature of art, we gain deeper insight into the artist’s methods, the ageing process of objects and the delicate balance between preservation and presentation that defines art conservation today.
Drawing Materials & Techniques
Binder
A binder is the substance mixed with pigment to hold colour particles together and fix them to a support. Binder materials can include gum arabic, oil, wax or animal glue. The composition of the binder can greatly influence the texture, opacity, drying rate and overall appearance of the finished artwork. Different binders have been used throughout history depending on local resources and artistic needs and they remain central to understanding the behaviour and longevity of art materials.
Bistre
Bistre is a warm yellow-brown ink traditionally made by dissolving soot or the tarry residue from burnt beechwood in water. It has a soft, translucent quality, making it ideal for washes, tonal studies and atmospheric effects. Bistre ink was widely used from the Renaissance through the 18th century. Rembrandt employed bistre washes in his drawings to enhance depth and chiaroscuro (light and dark) while Claude Lorrain used it extensively in landscape studies for its ability to convey luminous, hazy distance. The material’s organic origin means it can deteriorate or fade over time, making its identification and preservation an aspect part of paper conservation today.
Above: a sketch by an 18th century artist in pen with bistre, washed India ink and gouache highlights
Calcium Carbonate / Whiting
Calcium carbonate, commonly known as whiting, is a finely ground chalk widely used in the preparation of grounds, paper surfaces and other drawing supports. Its bright, matte qualities provides artists with a smooth, stable surface suitable for drawing, painting and gilding. Whiting also helps control absorbency, allowing media such as ink to behave consistently across the surface. Whiting plays an important role in preparing sheets for metalpoint, notably in the work of Leonardo da Vinci and Rogier van der Weyden, where a calcium carbonate ground allowed the metal stylus to leave a visible trace.
Cartoon
In art historical terms, a cartoon is a full-scale preparatory drawing created to guide the transfer of a design onto another surface, such as a fresco wall, tapestry loom or large painting. Typically executed on paper in sections, cartoons allowed artists to perfect their compositions before committing them to the final support. Methods such as pouncing (pricking and dusting with charcoal) or scoring were used to transfer the outlines accurately, ensuring consistency across large or complex works. During the Renaissance, artists produced highly detailed cartoons. Raphael’s famous tapestry cartoons for the Sistine Chapel are considered masterpieces in their own right. In later centuries, cartoons also played a vital role in the design of large-scale tapestries at centres such as the Gobelins Manufactory in France.
Above: detail of bistre, graphite and gouache used in a preparatory drawing depicting the Garden of Eden, Netherlandish, 16th century
Chalk
Chalk is a soft, natural limestone used as a drawing material in three main colours: white, black and red (also known as sanguine). It is ideal for figure studies, portrait sketches and preparatory drawings. White chalk is often used for highlights on toned paper, while black chalk and sanguine provide rich tonal contrast and warmth. Renaissance artists used black and red chalk extensively for figure studies. During the 17th and 18th centuries, masters like Peter Paul Rubens and François Boucher refined the trois crayons technique, combining black, red and white chalk on toned paper.
Charcoal
Charcoal is created by heating wood in the absence of oxygen, a process known as pyrolysis. Instead of burning away, the wood is slowly carbonised, causing moisture, oils and volatile compounds to evaporate while leaving behind a lightweight, pure carbon stick. It produces a deep black pigment. Willow and vine charcoal are commonly used for their soft, velvety lines, while compressed charcoal provides darker, more permanent marks.
Above: detail from a conté crayon portrait of Edmond François Aman-Jean by Georges Seurat, 1882-83
Conté Crayon
Conté crayon is a hard drawing stick made from a mixture of graphite or coloured pigments blended with clay and a small amount of wax, typically produced in shades of black, white, sanguine and bistre. It was invented in 1795 by Nicolas-Jacques Conté during a graphite shortage in Napoleonic France. Conté crayon was notably used by 19th century artists such as Edgar Degas, whose ballet and figure studies often combine it with pastels.
Fixative
Fixative is a protective solution that is spray-applied to drawings to stabilise friable media such as charcoal, pastel and chalk. Artists may apply a light “workable” fixative between layers or a final fixative once the drawing is complete. Early fixatives were made from diluted shellac, gum arabic or milk casein, applied with a mouth-blown diffuser or brush. Modern conservation practice warns that fixatives can alter paper colour or surface sheen over time.
Above: detail from a graphite portrait of The Kaunitz Sisters by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1818
Graphite
Graphite is a naturally occurring crystalline form of carbon, best known today as the core material of pencils. Mixed with varying amounts of clay and then kiln-fired, it produces a wide range of hardness grades, allowing artists to achieve everything from delicate, precise lines to rich, velvety shading. Graphite became a major artistic medium after the discovery of exceptionally pure graphite deposits in Cumbria in the 16th century. During the Napoleonic war, England ceased trade of graphite with Europe, leading to a variety of alternative drawing materials to be created.
Gum Arabic
Gum arabic is a natural resin obtained from the sap of acacia trees, most commonly Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal. It dissolves easily in water and dries to a clear, flexible film, making it an ideal binder for ink, watercolour and drawing media. In addition to its binding properties, gum arabic influences the flow, gloss and transparency of pigments. This allows artists to achieve controlled washes, crisp lines and delicate tonal variations.
Above: detail from an india ink drawing by Abraham de Haen
India Ink / Indian Ink
India ink is a deep black, carbon-based ink traditionally made from finely ground soot, known as lampblack, mixed with water and a small amount of binder such as shellac or gum arabic. Artists use it with dip pens, brushes or reed pens. Indian Ink came to Europe in the 18th century, it originated in ancient China and India, where carbon based inks were essential to traditional calligraphy practices.
Ink
Ink is a liquid colouring medium made from pigments or dyes suspended in water or another fluid. Its character varies widely depending on composition, for example carbon inks produce dense opaque blacks, dye-based inks offer vibrant colour and iron gall inks create fine lines. Ink has been central to artistic and written culture for thousands of years, as a linear drawing tool or watered down as a wash pigment. Different types of ink can decay and fade at different rates, requiring careful inspection by a conservator to achieve the safest methods of display and preservation.
Above: a detail of a drawing in iron gall ink, the acidic deterioration of the ink has eaten through the paper
Iron Gall Ink
Iron gall ink is a historic writing and drawing ink made by combining tannins extracted from oak galls with iron salts and a binder such as gum arabic. The resulting ink produces a rich, bluish-black line that darkens as it oxidises. Its strong, fine lines made it a preferred medium for manuscripts and pen drawings from the medieval period through the 19th century. The chemical reactivity of iron gall ink means it can become acidic over time, leading to paper burn-through and ink corrosion, an issue of significant concern in modern conservation.
Marker / Felt-Tip Pen
A marker or felt tip pen is an ink-filled drawing tool with a porous fibre that delivers smooth lines. Commercial felt-tip pens were invented in the mid 20th century and used by artists in the Pop Art movement.
Above: detail from a metalpoint portrait attributed to Pier Francesco Foschi, 1520-39
Metalpoint / Silverpoint
Metalpoint is a drawing technique that uses a metal stylus, most commonly silver, but also gold, copper or lead. The stylus is moved across a specially prepared ground containing abrasive materials such as bone ash or calcium carbonate. As the metalpoint moves, tiny particles are deposited onto the surface, producing fine, delicate lines that cannot be erased. Silverpoint, the most widely used form, is prized for its subtle grey tone that slowly warms to a soft brown patina as the metal oxidises over time. Metalpoint was a central discipline of Renaissance draftsmanship. Its use declined with the rise of graphite, which offered greater flexibility, but it experienced revivals in the 19th and 20th centuries through artists like Joseph Stella and Hendrik Goltzius.
Nibs
Nibs are interchangeable metal pen tips used with dip pens to create a wide range of line qualities in ink drawing and calligraphy. They are manufactured in various shapes and can produce everything from razor-fine lines to dramatic, expressive strokes depending on pressure, angle and ink flow. Metal nibs became widespread in the 19th century, replacing earlier quill and reed pens due to their durability and consistency.
Above: detail of a pen and ink drawing of Two Satyrs in a Landscape by Titian, 1505-10
Paper Grain / Tooth
Paper grain or tooth refers to the texture and surface roughness of a sheet of paper, which directly affects how drawing materials adhere, glide and deposit pigment. A rough or toothy surface holds granular materials such as charcoal, pastel and graphite more readily, while smoother papers allow for finer details and crisp lines.
Parchment / Vellum
Parchment and vellum are writing and drawing surfaces made from specially prepared animal skins, typically sheep or goats for parchment, and calfskin for the smoother vellum. To create this delicate surface, the skins are cleaned, stretched on a frame and scraped repeatedly to create a thin, durable surface with a subtly textured finish.
Above: detail of a design for a wall monument by Francesco di Giorgio Martini, 1490 – ink and gouache on vellum
Pastel
Pastel consists of powdered pigment bound with a minimal amount of gum or resin and formed into sticks, available in soft, hard and oil-based varieties. Soft pastels offer rich colour and velvety texture, ideal for blending and atmospheric effects, while hard pastels allow for sharper lines and detailed work. Their pure pigment content gives them exceptional luminosity, making pastel a bridge between drawing and painting. Pastels are typically applied to textured or sanded paper, which helps the powder adhere.
The medium became especially prominent in the 18th century, championed by artists such as Rosalba Carriera, who elevated pastel portraiture to great popularity across Europe. In the 19th century, Edgar Degas transformed the medium through dynamic ballet and figure studies. Mary Cassatt and Odilon Redon are also well-known artists of the pastel medium.
Pounce
Pounce is a fine powder that is traditionally made from ground chalk, gypsum or cuttlefish. It is used in drawing and manuscript production to prepare or smooth a surface and to aid the transfer of designs. When rubbed onto paper, parchment or vellum, pounce reduces surface grease and adjusts absorbency, helping inks flow cleanly without feathering. In the transfer process, it is dusted through pricked outlines (a method known as pouncing) to reproduce a design accurately on a fresh surface.
Above: detail of a pastel and charcoal sketch by Degas, 1900
Pulp
Pulp is the fibrous raw material from which paper is made, created by breaking down plant fibres. Pulp can be made of cotton, linen, hemp rags and wood. A slurry mixture is suspended in water before being lifted onto a mould and deckle, drained, pressed and dried to form sheets. The composition, fineness and preparation of the pulp determine a paper’s strength, texture, colour and suitability for drawing, printing or conservation treatment.
Historically, European papers were made almost exclusively from rag pulp, which produced exceptionally durable, high-quality sheets. This longevity is evident in the surviving works of Albrecht Dürer, Rembrandt, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and countless others whose drawings and prints remain stable centuries later. The 19th-century introduction of wood pulp allowed for mass production but also brought issues of acidity and rapid deterioration. Today, conservators use high grade papers including cotton or archival materials to avoid these issues.
Reed Pen
A reed pen is a traditional drawing instrument made from a hollow reed or bamboo stem that has been cut, split and shaped into a nib. Its broad, chisel-like tip produces bold, highly variable lines depending on angle and pressure, making it ideal for expressive mark-making, calligraphy and rapid sketching. Reed pens hold ink well but release it quickly, lending drawings a characteristic immediacy and lively quality.
Above: detail of sanguine chalk on laid paper by Edme Bouchardon, 18th century
Sanguine
Sanguine is a reddish-brown earth pigment, typically containing iron oxide, used in sticks or pencils to create a warm tone in drawings. When combined with black and white chalk, sanguine forms part of the classic ‘trois crayons‘ technique.
Sepia
Sepia is a warm brown ink that is traditionally derived from cuttlefish. It is carefully extracted, purified and mixed with a binder such as gum arabic. The resulting ink produces warm brown tones that range from soft, translucent washes to rich, velvety lines. Its subtle tonal range and gentle warmth made sepia a favourite medium for drawings, wash studies and early photographic toning. Though modern sepia inks are typically synthetic, the association of this colour remains closely tied to its historic origins.
Above: detail of a sepia drawing by Jean Honoré Fragonard French, 1763
Sizing
Sizing is a surface treatment applied to paper, parchment or canvas to regulate absorbency and strengthen the support. Made traditionally from animal gelatin or starch-based glues, sizing forms a thin barrier that prevents inks, paints and washes from soaking too deeply into the fibres. This allows media to sit cleanly on the surface, producing crisper lines, more controlled washes and improved durability. Different degrees of sizing can dramatically affect how a sheet responds to drawing or painting materials. In paper conservation, understanding sizing is crucial as degradation or uneven application can affect stability, paper flexibility and long-term preservation.
Stump / Tortillon
Stump or tortillon is a tightly rolled paper tool used for blending and softening marks made with graphite, charcoal, pastel or chalk. Unlike a finger, which deposits oils onto the paper, a stump blends cleanly and preserves the integrity of the surface, making it a preferred tool for controlled shading, gradation and subtle transitions of tone.
Above: detail from a pastel drawing by Alfred Sisley, 1885-97
Tragacanth Gum
Tragacanth gum is a natural binder derived from the sap of shrubs in the Astragalus genus. It is used in pastels and drawing media to bind pigment particles while maintaining a soft, workable texture. Unlike harder binders, tragacanth allows pastels to remain friable enough for effortless blending and layering. Tragacanth gum became a preferred binder in pastel manufacture from the 18th century onward, supporting the rise of pastel portraiture across Europe.
Wash
A wash is a technique in which diluted ink, watercolour or other pigment is applied with a brush to create transparent, tonal areas. Washes can be layered gradually to build depth, atmosphere and subtle gradations of light and shadow. In East Asia, ink wash painting developed into a major art form, mastered by Chinese literati artists such as Shen Zhou and Bada Shanren.
Above: detail of a 16th century preparatory drawing with a light brown wash and areas of darker wash to produce shadow
Watercolour Pencil
Watercolour pencils contain a water-soluble pigment bound with a soft, reactive binder. Used dry, it behaves like a conventional coloured pencil, allowing for precise linework and controlled shading. When a wet brush is applied, the pigment dissolves and spreads like watercolour paint, enabling washes, gradients and blended colour effects. Water soluble coloured pencils became widely available in the 20th century.
Willow Charcoal
Willow charcoal is a soft, lightweight form of charcoal made by slowly burning slender willow branches in a low-oxygen environment, a process that preserves the natural shape of the wood while converting it into pure carbon. It produces delicate, velvety black lines that are easily smudged, erased or blended.
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